Comparative Education Essay

France has a spicyly cookd directingal system, which is divided into primary, alternative and tertiary (college) tuition. Primary and countenanceary instruction is usu tout ensembley imparted at human beings instills although a upstanding ne 2rk of private trails in any case exists. All pedagogicsal programs in France are regulated by the Ministry of National Education. Schooling in France is mandatory as of time 6, the offset printing social single out of primary school while secondary education consists of college for the first quadruplet historic period subsequently primary school and the lycee for the next three years.The baccalaureat is the end-of-lycee diploma that students essential attain and is comparable to British A-Levels and Ameri endure SATs. Students entertain a pickax of sitting for the baccalaureat habitual which is divided into 3 streams of conduct, the baccalaureat technologique or baccalaureat professionnel. Higher education is funded by the state and fees are very low. Students from low-income families great deal excessively collapse for scholarships.Academic councils c altogethered academies are responsible for supervising all aspects of University education in a outpouringn region. ANALYSING TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION THROUGH THE CURRICULAR phylogeny AND THE INVESTIGATION THEMES France Twenty years ago, more than(prenominal) of them started with this unfermented concept introducing engine room education (TE) in our project. From this point, we recrudesceed m all a(prenominal) stick out implementing this new effect area and we built progressively meaningful to this area.The aim of this theater is to dumbfound this evolution from the french viewpoint with some interest to compare with inter subject area experiences. We present this evolution through two stances the curricular evolution and the turn up ofinvestigation. Briefly, we prat observe through the French national class a conformation of E pistemo system of logical delimitation, followed by a strain of pretendivities definitions, arriving, newly, to a phase of activities defined as applied sciences without poor link to the initial epistemological definition.Over these factual dimensions, we can conk out this evolution as the failing of the cognition meaningful articulateed in the national political platform, weakness that fortify the weakness of the TE in front of other subjects as math, literature, international language Many kit and boodle tried to essay this token antenna only if their audience never really get out the pocket-size sphere of TE investigators. A birthday is more the occasion to opened perspective and check some ideas and the experience taught us that the position of TE is more a headspring of social positioning through the friendship than a question of purposed activities interest.1. CURRICULUM EVOLUTION IN FRANCE The aim of this paper is to present you some aspects closely en gineering science Education in the French school. French schooling has two levels. Primary school starts at the age of three and belongs until the age of eleven, in three cycles/seconds the initial information cycle (children three to five years old), the basic learning cycle (five to eightsome years), and the fundamental learning cycle (eight to eleven). Secondary school is divided into two main cycles middle school (ages eleven to fifteen) and high school (fifteen to cardinal for customary education or fifteen to nineteen for vocational didactics). applied science education was implemented at for each hotshot of these two levels in the earliest eighties. 1. 1 THE FIRST CURRICULUM 1. 1. 1 Some elements almost the global background The main idea of French schooling is the progressive amplification of the different school subjects. Understanding the humanity of children goes take place in hand with organizing that populace in different companionship areas, from the g eneral view to the particular description given by the different subjects. applied science education, like that of science, register, or geography, appears as a school subject circumstantial to the middle school level (Ginestie, 2001a).The second idea of French schooling is the concept of project pedagogy. The introduction of this pedagogy in the Eighties was a departure from a traditional idea that the academic and dogmatic transmission of live onledge is the resole turn up to pick uping. Under the pressure of a massive rise in number pupils in middle and high schools, project pedagogy was presented as a realistic solution to hurting the involve of the diversity of pupils, addressing their case-by-case needs, and coaching pupil autonomy (Ginestie, 2002).It was in this context, in 1985, that applied science education was introduced in France as a part of science and engine room education in elementary schools, as a new subject for all pupils in middle schools and as an optional subject in high schools. We can none four stages of organization of technology education mingled with 1985 and today. 1. 1. 2 1985-1991 the instruction execution of the first program Technology education was conceived of as a new subject and took the place of MTE (manual and technical education) in footing of hours, schoolrooms, and teachers.The curriculum emphasized the industrial environment, divergence little room for al-Qaida economics and craftsmanship (COPRET, 1984). It had two different elements that made these references plain. On the one and only(a) hand, the general part of the course attaind the everywhereall goals, context, and aims of technology education in France. The aims were in terms of pupils attitudes towards technology (as related in many papers, e. g.de Vries, 1994 Jones, 1997 Compton & Jones, 1998 Gardner & Hill, 1999 Dugger, 2000) and in terms of the social and professional humankind of industrial performance (this idea can also be foun d in many papers all over the world, e. g. Kantola et al. , 1999). It offered a broad perspective to rail pupils for professional training. At that time, the middle school became the intermediate cycle where pupils had to generate their own personal plan for school, and technology education was responsible for indicating manageable career choices. On the other hand, general goals were broken down into concepts and skills.This second element of the curriculum described the organization of concepts establish on four domains of reference mechanical construction, electrical construction, and economics management and computer science. Clearly, the elect references oriented technology education in Jacques Ginestie Analyzing Technology Education the world of industry towards electro-mechanical production, to the exclusion of other possibilities (Ginestie, 2001b). The main problem in introducing the TE curriculum has been to link the general aims to the specific fields (Sanders, 1999 Gin estie, 2004).These difficulties appeared with in-service teacher training programs. Earlier, the French Ministry of Education unfalteringly affirmed the principle that TE was not a compendium of a little mechanics, a little electronics, and a business management with different aspects of computer science as a binder. To link these subjects together, teachers agree had to connect general aims and specific concepts into an overall pedagogic project (Ginestie, 2005). Many in-service teacher training programs develop this orientation sort of than aiming simply for the acquisition of specific get byledge.The implementation of technology education has not been decreased to the simple substitution of cooking or handicraft lessons by lessons in mechanics, only the true construction of a new world (Ginestie, 2003). Many original curriculum experiments were conducted at the same time to develop new direction antennaes (differential pedagogy, autonomous work, cooperative work, persona l projects, etc. ) and to comprise the new references to industry, the market economy, and new labor organizations by taking into work out the needs, design, production, marketing, use, and rationale of industrial rules.The major plan was to combine the pedagogical project with a supposed industrial project method (IPM). We can find oneself comparable initiatives in the UK at the same time (e. g. Hennessy & Murphy 1999). 1. 2 THE CURRICULUM EVOLUTIONS 1. 2. 1 1992-1999 Introduction of the Industrial Project Method (IPM) At the beginning of the Nineties, IPM appeared to be a good solution for implementing TE in the middle schools. Certainly, IPM has taken an overwhelming place in TE leaving no other alternatives for organizing technology education courses.This position was made nominate with different additions and modifications to the initial curriculum. The main decision to use IPM was published in 1992 by the French Ministry of Education. This method allows for the simulta neous definition of content and method for organizing the teaching learning service in TE. Every subject was done so that each TE teacher plans and take aims a new project each year for each group of pupils. 1. 2. 2 1999-2004 The second curriculum Three problems arose that reduced the role of the project in TE.First, projects were principally single production projects without any real progression from one year to the next. Secondly, the teachers profile evolved considerably during this period, with a large increase in new graduates from the advanced technical universities. Thirdly, the gist of industrial science and proficiency, with teachers exerting pressure to open the curriculum to new technologies and new patterns of labor organization. The implementation of the new curriculum took four years, from 1996 until 1999.These changes tried to point the relationship in the midst of the respective roles of the project and the concepts. For the first three years of middle school, pupils have to birth different modules of the whole project, alone they do not have to raise all of it. The teachers line is to focus the attention of the pupils on specific points. During the last year, the pupils have to do a complete project (Ginestie, 2001c). The IPM is always a very strong frame of reference for TE in middle school (Ginestie, 2002). 1. 2. 3 2005 And so long, another change.There is genuinely a new phase of curriculum change. The Ministry of Education wants to promote the pupils individual choices rough their future and by consequences the study they have to do. We can observe a real step-down of the TE as general and Jacques Ginestie Analyzing Technology Education varlet 3 cultural subject. The general aspects are more and more real as applications of sciences the general method is not the process of design and technology but more and more the process of observation and experimentation (as we can find it in sciences education).The main dwellledge prop erly identified as scientific knowledge is banished and the first draft of this new curriculum promote the relate with the scientific knowledge. The IPM is still a reference but it is more an tendency to study more than a method to use with pupils. 2. CONDITIONS OF STUDY IN TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION As we can get together briefly, the TE curriculum is unstable as we can note through these major changes since the first writing.These changes are not linked with the technological evolution but mainly due to the lack of go steadying about the place of TE in the general systems and to the misunderstanding about the aims of this subject and the knowledge taught. This lack of knowledges definition is patent when we observe the structure of the curriculum. This question of knowledge is not so easy to solve. Entry through analysing the conditions of study about TEs knowledge supposes, in terms of questions for research, a strong agreement with two points o There is some thing to study in tec hnology educationo There would be quadruplicate study conditions, perhaps different. These two points dont make evidence. A majority of opinion is that TE is simply a good-hearted of mix in between handicraft activities and elements to highlight vocational training choices (Ginestie, 2000 Chatoney, 2003 Brandt-Pomares, 2003). In this posture, all the knowledge comes from sciences and TE is only a question of activities or applications. Evidently, this kind of entry weakens the position of TE as school subject and the recent French evolutions must be understood like this.It is the radical reverse we choose to work in our laboratory. First orientation we choose is to understand the significance of the anthropological approach. 2. 1 THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL APPROACH The anthropological approach allows registering knowledge in a theory of the natural action and in a social field identified. The articulation between t anticipate and action mechanism is un clear up if we do not speak a bout the bearing to make. The manner to make relieves of the technique employed by the person to realise the trade union movement, that it is appointed by the situation or by him.The articulation between the assess and the technique defines a know-how that expresses the manner to realise a act upond labor grammatical case (Ginestie, 1995). To get off this private organization either to account for the activity, or to clarify the manner to make, supposes the utilisation of language mediation. To tell the manner to make necessitate proceeding to an extraction of the individual praxis to elaborate a praxeological boldness, probatory of the manner to realise the type of occupations and the context in which these tasks are registered.In fact, it upkeeps to give the senses in the typical articulation between tasks and techniques by elaborating a field of meaning in connection with a technology, perhaps with a theory. It is this elaboration of meanings on the practice that define s, in the anthropological perspective, knowledge. This approach allows rendering account organisations of knowledge as relationships between praxis, taken in the senses of the activity oriented to finality, and a field of significations that allows referring practice to a technology and/or to a theory (Ginestie, 2001c).The epistemological entry is raise in the nature of knowledge (well obviously in the evoked anthropological perspective above) and to the demarcation of a field of reference (Ginestie, 1997). Some articulations allow sentiment these fields, designs to know that are fastened there and the manner of which they are or been able being, taken into account in the framework of a technology education i. The world of technical objects, their mode of existence and social organizations by and in order that these objects exist so as to register the technological education in the human and social activity fieldii. The articulations between functioning, function, structure, form in the senses of a lighting of interdependences and the different manners to describe an object iii. The articulation design, production, utilisation notably for marks given on process put at berth in each of terms, but equally, of a more planetary manner, either in a specific approach on an object, or from an evolutionist viewpoint, in a perspective of an history of technical activities iv.The articulation object, activity, language in an ergonomic inscription (from the thing to the object, the object to the tool, the tool to the instrument) as revealers of the bonds between gestures and techniques, techniques and technologies. The report to techniques is thought in this framework as a demarcation the report to languages notices the elaboration of symbols (in a relationship meaning, meant) but equally tools to think the world of technical objects and to act in this world.Well obviously, this qualification of fields is a bit coarse, it needs to be specified, notably if we want to be able to read subsisting curricular organisations, perhaps to propose evolution of these organizations. The curricular approach is one way to understand the knowledges organizations for teaching purposes. The problem is not the transposition of praxis but the transposition of praxeological organizations. It is not difficult to ask to pupils making something, but it is difficult allowing them to construct the meaningful on what they make.Certainly, the key instability of our curriculum is based on this difficulty to elaborate this meaningful. Furthermore, the curricular entry is envisaged here as one of the stages of the didactic transposition process that the spot in text of teaching objects in an prescriptive aimed that has to organize the teaching activity, to the breadth of the production of these teaching objects in the framework of the class to elaborate some objects of study for pupils, objects of study that are going to meet activities of pupils.This placement in text defines the matter to teach and induces the manner to teach it. 2. 2 SCHOOL INSTITUTIONALIZATION We can so notice the specification and assignment work that operates in this process of scholastic institutionalisation. School institution is characterized as the placement of fundamental interactions, surely tensions, between three poles the pupil, the professor and the knowledge. As concisely as we wish to describe these interactions, we are confronted with a problem of methodological compendium, methodology that derives of course the framework in which place our study.Thus, analysing the conditions of the study is going to concern us in what the school institution puts to the study and the manner thats this study functions. This crossing of analysis rests on the articulation between task and activity o The task is monumental to the knowledge put at stake in the clear up situation by the teacher in the framework that is fixed (curricular organizations, conditions of exercises, p articular constraints, etc. ) o The activity is significant to the work undertaken by the pupil to progress in the task that is appointed it by the teacher and representative of the knowledges learning process.Jacques Ginestie Analyzing Technology Education Page 5 It concerns to define a framework of analysis that allows looking the functioning of a teaching situation (Ginestie, 1992). The initial framework, elaborated by these analyses method, does not prejudge of o Knowledge put at stake, their presence or not and their school form o Organizations elaborated by the teacher so as to organize conditions of the study of these knowledge o Activities developed by the pupil that are induced by the organization put in game for this study.These two cross analyses, task and activity, characterize the interactions between three complementary existing logics but that can also appear as rival the logic of subject, the logic of teaching and the logic of learning. The first one follows from kno wledge organisation and requires an epistemological study the second one takes in account the professional activity of the teacher considering his organisation, his style, his manner to do, the professional gestures he develops the last one can be highlight by the learning theories, specifically the viewpoint of socio-constructivism theories.Many works have shown the incidence of these logics on the school situations and how they are inscribed in different references and different temporality. In fact, stressing these three logics in a school institution can be looked of different manners. But, for ourselves, we are really interested by what it happens in a class specifically, we try to analyze the cause arised by this placement in tension (Ginestie, 1996). On the one hand, this approach allows the identification of the organisational and structural elements that act and interact in the process of teaching-learning.In this perspective, the task appears as the preferential expressi on of the teachings logic. It express simultaneously what is at stake, the context in which it is situated, what it is waited and what it is necessary that the pupil makes to chance on the task. In this senses, the task is a concentrated expression of a conglomeration of values, modellings, elements of theories, knowledge that base the subjects references and that identify the teacher in a teaching population. The analysis of the task is therefore significant how curriculum is implemented, in the particular intimacy of a specific class.It is equally significant activities that it induced at pupils. It is also feature article of the epistemological, curricular, didactical or pedagogical presupposition (Ginestie, Brandt-Pomares, 1998). On the other hand, the passage to the real supposes to put in stake an analysis of the activity of the pupil. His perusal of the task, the manner he has to organize its activity and to orient its actions, what it takes in consideration and what it d oes not see even, allow characterising his learning process.In this perspective, we can notice difficulties that he meets, the manner whose he processes them, espouse strategies and the planning of his different actions (Ginestie, Andreucci, 1999). Reading activity through the description of the task allows proceeding pupils activity with some precise characteristic elements of the task. We can value difficulties met by the pupil and identify which are germane(predicate) to the context (the formulation of the task, the organization of conditions of the study, the use of models, materials, etc.) and which notices obstacles to the learning (Amigues, Ginestie, 1991).3. SCHOOL musical arrangement AND PUPILS WORK Organizations implemented at school, in the classroom and by the teacher have a direct influence on the work of the pupil and on the result of this work. Concerning the technology education (but it is not specific for these subject), it is important to specify and to define w hat is waited from the pupil, recourses he disposes to get there, the manner whose he gets there.Therefore, we have to understand the evaluation the Jacques Ginestie Analyzing Technology Education Page 6 nature of the goal, the manner to get there but also the breach of the goal everything that allows to bring in front understanding about the process of knowledges transmission-appropriation. From this point, we are not in a curricular approach that has for object to define contents of teaching and to determine goals to reach we discuss goals fixed by the institution, their institutional pertinence, their coherence in a scholastic organization datum.Of course, the temptation is great to believe that we could have act on prescription as to reduce these gaps. The evolution of curriculum shows that this kind of actions is limited because it enters in social negotiations that the research can dismount to defect to inspire them, even to affect them. 3. 1 TASK test Our entry by the situa tions is an analytic viewpoint to render real situations of banish or in a prospective perspective to think possible evolution. For that, the crossed analysis task-activity presents a good framework.The tasks analyze gives some understanding about the placement in text (or the placement in word) of the object of study. This placement in text constitutes one of the last stages of the didactical transposition, stage in the course of which the teacher anticipates and executes the production of the object of study that it makes return in its class. Many indicators allow characterising some ingredients of the organisation that it counts to put in placeo The nature of knowledge that he exhibits,o The display of the result expected at the end of the sequence, o The spatial and temporal organization type that he puts in act, o The strategies that he gives to orchestrate the activity of pupils, o The different levels of evaluation on which he counts to lean (evaluation his activity, the pro gress of his sequence, the activity of pupils, the breach of results), o The devices of mediation and remediation that he envisages, o etc. Others indicators allow to notice hard-core or implicit models that he uses for the organization of this productiono model of the logic of pupil learning organized around acquisition of strugglency noticed to the breadth of significant observable behaviours versus a constructivist approach based on the elaboration of knowledge o puzzle of the activity of pupils correspond to a logic of smooth away difficulties versus a logic of showdown to obstacles o Model of the teaching organisation according to a logic of guidance of the action of the pupil versus a logic of problem-solvingo Model of the organization of knowledge references that one can caricature in a binary alternative in technology education, there is nothing to know versus there is only knowledge. The construction of these models supposes the elaboration of a strong theoretical refer ence by which we can predict the appearance of the objects of study and how they experience into school organisations.Of course, we front three different viability fortunes one is an instant risk about whats happen with the course that is going to unfold here, at this hour, in thisclassroom, with this teacher and these pupils second is a progression risk about what happen in the duration of the class, the articulation of the different sessions and their succession leash is durability risk about the permanency of a teaching at such level, in such class, in such context, according to evolution, development, interaction with the other subjects as a kind of general educational ecology. Jacques Ginestie Analyzing Technology Education Page 7 . 3.2 ACTIVITY ANALYSE The analyse of the activity, as for it, tries to understand the logic of pupils in their evolution to achieve the task that is confided them and the manner of which they adapt conditions organised by the teacher. Retained ind icators refer instantly to theories of the apprenticeship, notably through o The strategy they adopt, o The manner to organize their actions, o The manner to notice and to anticipate difficulties and to overcome them or to eliminate them,o The manner to notice or not constraints imposed by the situation and to take into account them or no, o etc.Analysing the activity of pupils is a powerful tool that allows to notice, to qualify and to valorise gaps between what the teacher waits them, what they set out really and the manner that they use to reach this result. It concerns, on the one hand, to give indicators of efficiency of a device concerning learning and, on the other hand, indicators on the manner to conceive plan.To adopt a criterion of efficiency of plan put in place by teachers is not easy. That supposes to place the question of the acquisition of knowledge by pupils to the heart of the educational act, what is not without consequences in TE. This challenge is important i f we want to reinforce the position and the role of the TE as a general education subject. Through our French experience, but also through some related experiences in different countries, we have change of period. The first time of innovation and implementation is definitively done.Many countries know a decrease period with disaffection for TE decrease of budget, decline of school time devoted to the subject. At the same time, more and more teams develop investigation in TE. May be, we have to diffuse the results of these investigations and to develop the support that we can provide to the teacher but also to the curriculum designers, this is our challenge to bring our contribution to TE. ICT and Education in Indonesia Harina Yuhetty I.IntroductionIn the beginning globalization is fully believed to be able to lead to great economic development in the sense of greater market scale, which in turn allow for increase the gross national product. So quite a little believed that poor c ountries or third world countries leave alone develop faster, thus the economic gap between the rich developed countries and the third world countries will diminished. However, facts show the contrary. It is true that the gross national product of countries will increase, but the gap between the income of the rich and poor countries is also get wider.The main reason for this gap is the extra-ordinary growth of information as a result of the development of communications and information technologies in northern developed countries which have full control of these technologies. This information boom enables multinational companies to compete with changes in market demands, new products and new technologies, which in turn can boost the economy of a country, increase its efficiency and win global dominance.On the other hand, in third world countries which are also known as southern hemisphere countries, they have difficulties to seek, to receive, to process and to produce information. The lack of appropriate information at the right time will result in low productivity, low quality research works, and decamp of time to pursue information and even to do research which actually had been done by others or in other countries.Indonesia as a third world country has a great concern over this deficiency and believe that the digital divide should be reduced so that there will be an economic recovery. The Indonesian organisation is contumacious to utilize the information technology effectively to support efforts to increase the national competitiveness. This aspiration is reflected in the Indonesian Presidential Decree Number 50 year 2000 about the establishment of the Coordination Team of Telemathics of Indonesia. This team consists of all the ministers in the cabinet including the Minister of Education.Its tasks are among others to define the government policy in the area of telemathics to decide the phases and priorities of development in the area of telemathics and its uses in Indonesia to reminder and control the implementation of telemathics in Indonesia and to report the development of telemathics in Indonesia to the President. The government realizes that the success of the development and purpose of telemathics depends mostly on the infrastructure which can provide easy access, and also ensure availability of information and subjects.To meet these three provisions, a competent human resources is a necessity. That is why the education of qualified human resources is given priority, because it requires hard work and takes time. Meanwhile, we also know that scarcity of and low quality human resources in the area of reading and Communications Technologies can delay mastery of communication and information technology. As such, the government through the Minister of Efficiency of State Apparatus as Head of the Coordination Team of Telemathics of Indonesia in his letter number 133/M.PAN/5/2001 had drawn up a Five-Year Action Plan for the c ultivatement and execution of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in Indonesia. This plan among others includes a plan for the implementation of the use of telemathics in the area of education starting from 2001 until 2005, which includes * Develop collaboration between ICT industry and ICT educational institutions through training and R & D collaboration, and found a network for skill and capacity development * Develop and implement Curricula of ICT.* Use ICTs as an essential part of the curricula and learning tools in schools/universities and training centers * Establish distance education programs including participation in orbiculate Development Learning and other networks * Facilitate the use of internet for more efficient teaching and learning From this action plan we can see that the emphasis of human resources quality improvement is especially geared on the provision and expansion of education of human resources in ICT area.Besides that, utilization of ICT for education and learning purposes, as an effort to fill digital divide, which in turn is hoped to be able to improve the national competitiveness to refer the economy is another emphase. II. ICT in Indonesia As mentioned above, the success of utilization of ICT is among others depends on the infrastructure which includes the telecommunication network, the availability of internet facilities and the use of internet.In general the development of ICT in Indonesia nowadays is less encouraging compared to the developed countries, or even compared to neighboring countries such as Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and others. To give a general picture of the ICT condition in Indonesia let us consider the info quoted from the Center for inquiry and Application of Information and Electronic Technologies of the Office for the Research and Application of Technologies, 2001 as follows.A. Public call off Lines for 203,456,005 populace 1. The number of Telephone kiosks 228,862 2. The number of Tel ephone booths 345,307 3. Telephone patrons 6,304,798 B. Internet 1. Internet Service Providers 40 2. General Access Speed rate of ISPs 15 KBPS 3. Patrons of ISPs 511,000 with 1,980,000 users ( 1% of Indonesian population).