What ever intererests you (Restrictions in directions) Research Paper

What ever intererests you (Restrictions in directions) - Research Paper Example Coffee just like many other products has an interesting history; this research focuses on providing a background on where the caffeinated phenomenon begin and what made it loved so much (Pendergrast, 2001). Just like many other products the beginnings of coffee are enveloped in lore and mystery, legend states that the Ethiopian goat herder by the name of Kaldi discovered the crop. Kaldi noticed that his goats had full energy and were flokering soon after eating berries of coffee shrub, when Kaldi tried the same berries he had the same reaction. Later a monk took the berries to his fellow monks who spent the whole night alert and awake which was probably a reaction from the high caffeine found in coffee berries, a stimulant that usually protects the coffee crop from pests. Soon after the two incidents the knowledge about the energizing effects of the coffee berries started spreading all around the world, the word moved east reaching Arabian Peninsula, from there the reputation of the plant spread all around the globe. The Arabs in the Arabian Peninsula began the cultivation of the crop and also were the first to begin the trade of coffee berries, the cultivation of the crop spread around the Arab world fact, by 16th century countries such as Egypt, Turkey Syrian, and Persia cultivated the crop and traded its berries. People did not only drink coffee at homes but also in many of the coffee houses during the period; this coffee houses began appearing in different cities all across the east. As the coffee houses (qahveh kahneh) increased so did the people who frequented these places, the people increased as this was not only a place for drinking coffee, they also engaged in conversation, watched performers and listened to music. The word about the new product kept spreading, to maintain a monopoly of the coffee trade

(Second Language acquisition) Data Collection Assignment requires Research Paper

(Second Language acquisition) Data Collection Assignment requires getting two language samples from second language learners - Research Paper Example However, in a bid to overcome barriers that could hinder one from acquiring new markets and opportunities, people have strived hard to beat all odds and perform feats previously considered impossible by their peers (Zaraysky 2009, 32). To understand the concept of second language acquisition, it is necessary to comprehend some factors that make a language harder to learn than another. The first of these factors is difference in grammatical structure of a language from another. Different languages have varied use of grammar. Whereas one language could demand that the verb comes before the subject, another could require that the subject comes before the verb. This causes initial confusion to the learner, slowing his pace and probability of grasping a new language. Second, a difference in pronunciation requirements of a language hinders one’s ability to articulate in speech a language he may have mastered its vocabulary. In addition, language learners are usually used to their lo cal accents and tone, and managing to cope with a foreign accent is sometimes nightmarish. Cultural differences between different language speakers influence their native language and the ease with which they can adapt to another cultural language (Blake 2008, 43). It is, therefore, important for a second language learner to understand the culture of the people he is learning their tongue. Aims and Objectives of the Research This inter-language data analysis aims at creating an understanding of differences between two sample languages. Upon gathering, analyzing and understanding these facts, there will be a clearer understanding of the difficulties one should expect while learning any of the two languages. In this case, German and English languages are compared and contrasted. Analysis of the languages is based on two samples of short essays (essay 1 and essay 2 available at the appendix). The objective of this comparison and contrast is to make learning the languages easy. Other th an the vocabulary aspect of the two languages, this research goes further to dissect each language in details and reveal their fine linguistic differences. Data pertaining to several aspects of the languages is a crucial facet of the research. Issues to do with pronunciation of English words against German language are considered at length. In addition, the research labors to find out grammatical differences between the two languages. The chief characteristic of this grammatical analysis is the order of verbs, subjects, nouns, pronouns and adjectives. Collected data is also used to create an awareness of the cultural differences, if any. It thereafter tries to offer solutions to the difficulties one observes in learning either English or German as a second language. Clearly, data collection and analysis of learning a second language will make the process of grasping German as a second language to a native English speaker easier. The research aims at lessening the time and effort one puts in learning a new lingo. By preparing one for the challenges to expect in learning a language and providing possible solutions to the hurdles, a learner is placed in a good position to learn fast. Data Collection Methods Methods used to collect data for this research was informed by several factors. It was necessary to put into consideration the data collection strategy, accuracy requirements of the research, skills of

Cadbury Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Cadbury Business - Essay Example The company operates in more than 50 countries globally. The company is ahead of other food companies like Nestle and Swiss conglomerate. Though the company has been facing stiff competition from small producers who advocate for healthy eating, the company has made it to thrive and it still performs well financially. Many British consumers love the company and its products. The main products of the company are fruit sweets, toffees, pastilles, bubble and chewing mints. Macro environment Those are the external and factors which cannot be controlled that influence the decision making of an organization. The macro environment also affects the strategies and the performance of the organization. The macro environment includes such factors as the economic factors, social conditions, and demographics, political and legal conditions within the organization. The other factors may include the natural factors, and changes in technology. The micro environment has influence on competitors, change s in the cultural tastes, disastrous weather, changes in the government regulations and changes in interest rates. Key Performance indicators These are indicators which measures the extent to which an organization has accomplished its objectives. They are the tools that many organizations use in order to track and keep record their progress and the success they have achieved in the organization. They consist of asset of measurable objectives which are predetermined for a specific organization and the indicators can involve any aspect of the organization which is considered to be important. For an organization to come up with an effective performance indicator, it must stipulate the mission of the organization first which would clearly define the goals and the objectives of the organization. The goals set out by the organization should be measurable and all the stakeholders in the organization must be involved in formulating such goals. The performance indicators can be presented in form of charts or reports. The key performance indicators provide an insight into the strengths and performance of an organization which is usually based or determined by the predefined measures specified by the organization. The method that an organization may chose to display the performance may vary, as it largely depends on the objective that was being measured and the audience which was targeted. Key performance indicators are different for each and every organization since they depend on the type of the business or organization and the specific objectives being measured. The objectives of any given organization can either be non financial or financial. In our case for the Cadbury, the organization uses number of sales made as the key performance indicator. The Cadbury Company also uses the comparison between different trading years profit with a target of the percentage they want in each and every year. Once a company or organization comes up with a specific key performance in dicator, it becomes very hard to change it unless the goals of the organization change. The key performance indicator should be maintained stable so that the progress of the organization can be efficiently and effectively monitored. The Cadbury Company has tried to maintain its performance indicator for many years and this has enabled the company to monitor its progress against other competitors in the industry. This has also enabled the Cadbury

Tax Planning And Tax Avoidance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Tax Planning And Tax Avoidance - Essay Example Taxation is a major tool to drive the economics in the certain direction. Young and Guenther studied the relationship in the context of the mobility of capital in international level and Sun studied the efficiency of capital allocation. However, all these require that the financial reporting to be reliable, accurate, transparent, comparable and true representative of business conditions. International Financial Reporting Standards is mandated to be adopted as the financial reporting system in the EU countries for the listing companies. Barth, Landsman, & Lang and others have reported an improvement in the accounting information with the adoption of IFRS. Samuel, & Obiamaka in a paper stated that IFRS system of accounting as the base for tax will drive the tax accounting to generate the real economic value of the company. This provides greater opportunity to explore the real taxable income for the company. Use of IFRS increases the chances of them being listed in other countries. Use of the comparable system of IFRS across the broad would reduce the chances of measures taken by the company for tax avoidance to be overlooked. Another argument in favor of the adoption of IFRS states that it would result in the increased involvement of audit committee in addition to the other level of management. This will increase the double check facility for the audit committee as companies will not be available with an opportunity to avoid tax by claiming that reporting of a transaction is in accordance with the rules.

Electro-optics and Infrared Essay Example for Free

Electro-optics and Infrared Essay Electronic warfare involves the utilization of techniques, equipment and devices to counteract or deny the enemy from using radar, communications and other radio wave devices. The EW techniques can be further subdivided into electronic support, electronic attack and electronic protection (Frater Ryan, 2001). Electronic support (ES) involves actions taken by an operational commander to search, intercept, identify and locate sources of electromagnetic energy. ES is considered to be passive as it involves using passive measures which do not generate their own energy. Electronic attack (EA) involves using electromagnetic energy to attack facilities, equipment or personnel in order to destroy the enemys combat capability. EA is taken be an active technique as it involves jamming, neutralization and electronic deception, which are usually noisy since they generate their own energy (Goodman Carus, 1990). Jamming entails use of electromagnetic energy to prevent radio signal transmission. In neutralizing the enemy’s signal, extremely high levels of electromagnetic radiation are utilized to damage permanently the enemy’s electronic equipment. While in electronic deception false or misleading signals are sent in order to deceive and confuse the enemy. Electronic protection (EP) entails the actions taken to protect facilities, personnel and equipment from effects of EW that would destroy or damage their combat capability. EP involves using active and passive techniques (Frater Ryan, 2001). In the past, EW systems were mainly concerned with the microwave spectrum region but nowadays it is continuously shifting to the longer wavelengths of IR and also to the visible region. The current weapon systems are increasingly exploiting a mixture of sensors in order to overcome the adverse climatic conditions (Szweda, 2000). To such systems, countermeasures are also needed which include compact diode laser light sources. Additionally, small and light equipment which provide a wide range of sensors and countermeasures is also needed (Selex Galileo, 2009). Land environment EW systems in land operations are very important to the military since most of their operations are done on land. In most countries their military forces are still equipped with old equipment which were utilized in the Second World War and thus are planning to adopt new ones. For instance, Canada has not yet adopted the new equipment and hence is planning to update its land EW equipment in a few years time (Farley Gauthier, 2008). According to Bellamy (1987), developments in the weapons platforms and protection have taken place gradually and slowly, and the external appearance of the battlefield can easily be seen for the year 2000 or 2010. However, in the EW field changes have occurred rapidly as new equipments are being made which serve the military better. The EW field has become like a battle field as military forces are trying to outdo each other. For instance, in equipping its military forces, the British government purchased the first soothsayer equipment at cost of about $220 million and was to start using it in 2006 (Deagel, 2003). Many countries inclusive of the United State of America are investing many funds in research on the EW systems in order to increase the military strengths (Szweda, 2000). The primary bands of the radar and its frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum are VHF, UHF and it continues onwards. The commonly used wave frequencies by the US, NATO and other military forces, ranges from about 26. 5 GHz to about 170 GHz (Bellamy, 1987). The communication channel contains a band of frequencies, however, during communications the equipment are tuned to certain frequency in order to communicate with the other person on the other side. For high communication quality broad band are essential, but are usually prone to jamming and interception by another person who could be the enemy. To avoid jamming or interception, narrow bands are therefore preferred and thus are most commonly used. On land EW systems and especially the radar components have many functions which are very useful to the military and some of them include; locating weapons, tracking shell, surveillance of battlefield, ground vehicle self protection, subsurface object detection, among others (Bretton, 1986). This information is essential for the military as it saves the lives of many military personnel. For instance, locating weapons allows military to detect land mines or bombs which have been laid down as a trap and hence are able to deactivate them. There are several EW techniques currently being used. For instance the British army is equipped with soothsayer EW equipment which is used for detecting and identifying radar and radio signals on the battlefield. This equipment is usually mounted on lightweight and armored military vehicles. Currently, the neodymium-YAG laser is also being used as optical range finders, however, the equipment is undergoing improvement in order to increase its smoke penetration power (Margiotta, 2004). Another technique being utilized is the signal intelligence. Signal intelligence (SIGNIT) This technique involves gathering intelligent information by intercepting signals between individuals using electronic equipment (Lindborg, 1997). It entails use of cryptanalysis since sensitive information is usually encrypted. Traffic analysis is also used in some cases to get valuable information. Through traffic analysis information concerning the sender and the receiver of that information and the quantity of information shared between the two individuals can be easily obtained (Shulsky Schmitt, 2002). This technique is broad and thus has many subdivisions; however, the two main subdivisions include communication intelligence (COMINT) and electronic intelligence (ELINT). Currently, the SIGNIT techniques also involves use optical devices thereby making it more effective and efficient. a) COMINT This type deals with voice information or messages which are derived from an interception of foreign communications (Lockwood, 2006). This technique is used for text interception, voice interception, signal channeling interception and for monitoring friendly conversations (Yusof, 1999). Text interception is currently not being used by many military forces. Military forces of nations of the former Soviet Union are the still using it and it involves use of Morse code. Radio frequencies are scanned for character sequences and facsimile in order to get intelligence information. In voice interception the technique involves listening to voice communications over radios, telephones or through wiretaps. In cases where the communication is encrypted, the information is first decrypted through an intro-electric diagram process for it to be heard. However, the interceptor has to understand the language used in order to get the information. Furthermore, the technique is also utilized to monitor own communication in order to avoid leaking intelligence information to the enemy. b) ELINT This involves use of electronic sensors to gather intelligence information. This technique focuses mainly on non-communication signals intelligence. The process entails signal identification through analysis of certain parameters, then matching the signal parameter with known parameters or recording it as potential new emitter. The data collected is usually highly classified and hence given much security to prevent unauthorized individuals from accessing it. The basic ELINT target are all radar types and these include fire control navigation, surveillance and all radars deployed on sea, land and even in the air. Other targets include navigation systems, data links, command links and telemetry links (Ince et al, 2000). In most cases and especially in times of peace, ELINT is performed regularly prior to a specific mission. Peace operations have the objective of obtaining the maximum possible information on a complete electromagnetic radiation within the areas of interest in any particular nation. In such cases, special ships, satellites, aircraft and land based ELINT facilities are utilized which operate in comprehensive reconnaissance schedules. Maritime In the maritime environment, the EW systems have to meet their operational capability requirements in order to be effective and hence meet their objectives. However, there is a high occurrence chance of adverse electromagnetic interference between the EW and sensor system, since the maritime platforms operate jointly and also the number of EW and sensor system fitted in the maritime platforms has been increasing continually (DallArmi-Stoks et al, 2007). EW systems are mainly utilized for intelligence gathering and for self protection. They are utilized for maritime surveillance because of their capability in detecting, classifying and identification of the targets by intercepting their communication and radar emissions. However, they are not useful when the target element is observing radio silence since there are no emissions of electromagnetic radiations (Ince et al, 2000). In target identification during surveillance, the method used by the EW systems involves finding several features in the intercepted signals which are unique to all emitters. These features mainly include; modulation, carrier frequency and stability, types and number of emitters, pulse width and pulse repetition frequency (Ince et al, 2000). Through the library carried by the interceptor, the target is identified. The library is usually obtained through ELINT as it collects and records much data from non-communication equipment radiation. The EW systems are usually installed in submarines or vessels for combat. There are several modern equipments which are currently being used but in limited number because of their cost. One is the naval laser warning system which is installed in surface ships. This system enables the ships command team to detect the presence of laser activity in the surrounding (Saab, 2009). They are essential for situation awareness as they allows individuals to detect any laser activity in their surrounding from the enemy. The laser warning system detects, classifies and identifies the threats and allows individuals to prepare themselves from any attack and to maneuver to safer locations. This system is also used in submarines for detection of anti-submarine LIDAR. Another EW system used is the submarine ELINT systems, which utilizes phase interferometer in order to increase accuracy when finding direction (Saab, 2009). This system comprises of radar Warner receiver antenna, an ELINT antenna, and EW processing unit installed in the vessel. Air Environment In the air environment, EW systems are used mainly for jamming, finding direction and for intelligence analysis of the ground military forces’ telephone, radio and Morse transmissions. Currently, the EW systems being used use complex command and control communications to link command posts and other posts such as weapons and radar posts (Boyne Fopp, 2002). In the past EW systems in the air force were not taken to be vitally important, but in the recent years they have become one of the critical parts of the air force plans (Gons, 2004). This is because the effectiveness of an aircraft depends greatly on the ability of the EW system. EW systems are essential for the military force to maintain dominance in the air and space. In aircrafts, the use of barrage jamming by simultaneous blocking a wide range of frequencies is currently becoming outdated since it utilizes much electrical power (Brown, 1986). Currently, lasers are being increasingly used because of their low power consumption, space saving, and many other advantages. A number of aircrafts are fitted with the modern optical devices which are entails use of lasers. One of the aircraft with modern optical devices is the air defense version of the Tornado (Brown, 1986). Optical devices used are the lasers radar which are considered to be less radical and helpful in visual recognition. There are also useful for aircraft recognition and tracking at long ranges which are usually achievable by air to air missiles. However, lasers have very narrow frequencies and thus can easily be tracked or intercepted. Furthermore, currently transferring electronic warfare capabilities across multiple platforms is not possible (AFPN, 2008). This can be attributed to lack of data standard or hardware. Conclusion and recommendation EW system EM compatibility should be addressed and managed properly using the correct procedures put in place in order to reduce EM interference. Otherwise the process of eliminating electromagnetic interference will become expensive and might affect the operational capability of the entire EW system. Consequently, adequate training might be helpful in ensuring that the proper procedures are followed. Ensuring that the right personnel have sufficient skills and knowledge on matters concerning EW system electromagnetic compatibility, interference problems will be greatly reduced. In addition to that, policies need to be developed and implemented to ensure that the correct procedures for addressing and managing the EW system electromagnetic compatibility are utilized. Policies will ensure that the technicians follow the proper procedures and not their own short cut procedures. In managing the complexity and the capability problems related to electromagnetic radiation in the EW system, it is essential that the electromagnetic capability and interference be assessed during the stages of planning, designing and even the development of the system. In addition to that assessment should be done during the installation and operation of the electronic and electrical equipment and all the stages should be governed by the electromagnetic interference control plan. Additionally, more research needs to be done on the EW systems used in the aircrafts. This is because transference of electronic warfare capabilities across multiple platforms is currently not possible. Since there is no data standard or hardware in existence, if one particular aircraft has tremendous capabilities against a certain threat, the capabilities have to be regenerated separately for other platforms. This process therefore wastes a lot time and money in regeneration of new aircrafts. This problem is not just affecting the air force but the entire military force. Researchers therefore need to concentrate more on weapon systems compatibility with electronic warfare programs. With more research standardized EW programs that are compatible with all or majority of weapon systems will be developed. In spite of the lasers being easily intercepted, they provide a number of useful advantages which include accuracy and long distance coverage. In order to eliminate the disadvantages in using lasers, research is essential and thus researchers need to find ways of maximizing the advantages of lasers and minimizing the disadvantages. However, researches need many funds and thus governments and other organizations need to invest money in funding these researches. Furthermore, an integrated approach is also needed that combines sensors, weapons, self protection systems and the centralized countermeasures systems. The approach entails use of preprogrammed automated control, command and communications networks which can transmit data from systems that collect it to EW systems. Consequently, a centralized command facility should be put in place which allows senior military officers to prioritize the threats and to determine the methods to use against that particular adversary system. Additionally, an integrated intelligence system is required which combines the large amount of data collected by the sensors and then transforms it to useful information. In conclusion, funds are essential in achieving all the above recommendations. Researches and especially scientific researches are usually expensive as they require modernized equipment, enough scientist and engineers who have adequate skills and knowledge. Governments and other world organizations therefore need to invest more money in electro-optic EW systems since they provide many advantages which are cost effective and efficient and thus useful for peace missions.

The Definition Of Community Development Sociology Essay

The Definition Of Community Development Sociology Essay In the last chapter, the researcher introduced the research background, stated the research aims and described the research problem. This chapter starts with the definition of community development, general concepts of community development and explores the community development framework. It also discusses community development in Belfast, Northern Ireland and links it to the basis of the study, which is the perception of residents on community development in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The Definition of community development, general concepts of community and community development Community as a unit of action can play the lead in development of Belfast communities. The basic process of planning community development is to identify needs of communities in Belfast, establish mutually agreeable goals and objectives, and implement plans by mobilizing accessible resources and community coalitions for community betterment. Accordingly, a variety of community planning strategies and actions can be created and actively implemented with the involvement of Belfast residents. The definition of community has been discussed in a variety of ways for many decades. Hillery (1955); Kaufman (1959); Bell and Newby (1972); Wilkinson (1972) agreed that the three general components of a community include a shared territory, a local society, and a process of locality-oriented collective actions. Belfast as a city or community is made up of inner communities or neighbourhoods. A shared territory refers to a geographic location, such as a neighbourhood, town, city, county, region, country, and so forth. A local society is an integrated union in which the daily activities of people and a complement of social structures embody all aspects of a common life. A process of locality-oriented collective actions can be understood as the local residents exerting effort collectively on behalf of their common interests. In this research, I specifically focus on the town/city community levels in Belfast to better understand whether this level of community forms a strong sense of belonging, thereby binding its residents together and joining their inner effort in response to external social and economic changes, as well as the demands of community development in general. Fawcett et al. (1984) emphasized on local residents self-motivation to establish their development agendas for the community. The last element mentioned here is the opportunity of community members to participate in public discussion. It is important for community development to involve many individuals, segments, classes, and groups within the community, and that each member has an equal chance to speak up and take part in the public forum. In addition, democracy, rationality, and the orientation toward accomplishment of community development agendas in which Belfast residents participate are key factors. Communication and power structure within the community are also important aspects. Since a community is understood to be a living place manifesting the physical characteristics of a setting and a social and historical context, community development should be considered in terms of the meaning of locality through personal activities, experiences, shared values, and the common historical memory. As a result, the concepts of community and community development adopted in this study consist of a shared territory, a local society, and the process of community autonomy and empowerment for a general purpose of community betterment. 2.3 Community Development Frameworks The main focus of community development has been the normal concept of solving problems and betterment of quality of life in rural communities. The way to improve rural life and life in Belfast is to identify problems and then solve them by enhancing community empowerment and advancement. Sanders (1958) considers the importance of social organizations in Community development, which are in charge of certain missions within communities. Sanders identified the role of hierarchical structure in communities in terms of detecting problems, setting agendas, and implementing plans. His view of development emphasizes social channels through which community programs can be carried out. The social channels refer to a well-developed organization with a clear division of labour, resource accessibility, and members sharing common values and pursuing the same objectives. Social organizations are the primary agents participating in community process and mobilizing resources to implement plans for their common goal. Community development, according to Sanders, is equivalent to development of organizations in Belfast that effectively implement subject-matter specialties such as health, welfare, agriculture, industry, recreation, etc across all levels from groups and associations to communities and regions (Sanders 1958:5). *Rothman (1979) identified the social planning approach as one of the ways to understand community development. He argued that the social planning approach is a technical process with regard to a certain community problem and emphasized rational, deliberately planned, and controlled change within communities (Rothman 1979:27). The rationality approach helps to manipulate the process of community development into standard phases of identifying problems, mobilizing resources, and setting agendas to implement programs for the goal of social betterment. There must be a constant interaction between identifying a problem, making a decision, and taking action to share and express concerns or community problems for communities in Belfast to experience change. Community development provides a good opportunity to explore issues of poverty in Belfast. The emphasis is on the opportunity for creating jobs, thereby raising the real incomes of residents. Hence, Belfast as a community is seen as a collection of micro units, and these units, their interactions, and their relationships with external units comprise the community economic system. Since communities in Belfast have increasingly engaged in their economic development, there are at least two different strategies adopted: community-oriented self-development and exogenous industrial recruitment (Summers and Branch 1984). Exogenous industrial recruitment refers to a form of development that encourages outside investors and firms to locate their businesses in the rural communities where local residents might expect to have the power to set substantial management strategies to promote the communitys common benefit. Self-development has come with the awakening of community empowerment because the strategy of industrial recruitment for facilitating development has been criticized. The main factors that spur self-development were the exodus of factories and the stagnating economy in communities. Still, the effect of the flourishing grassroots movement cannot be ignored. For many communities in Belfast, self-development strategies offer potential benefits for maintaining or improving their economic activities. According to Flora et al., community-oriented self-development strategies involve cooperation between the public and private sectors to create locally-controlled jobs and new sources of income (1991:20). These authors also identified three characteristics of the self-development model: (1) involvement by a local government, (2) investment of substantial local resources, and (3) the control of enterprises or activities locally (Flora et al. 1991). As such, broad community involvement revitalizes local economic activities by financing and organizational effort. At the same time, local residents can choose businesses according to characteristics that fit their demand closely and that will not damage their natural resources permanently, alter their landscape irrevocably, or change their lifestyle dramatically. For example, Flora et al. (1991) categ orized community-oriented self-development projects based on major activities and found that the most popular projects involve tourism, arts and crafts fairs, and recreational or cultural activity. Following that, existing business retention and expansion and downtown revitalization are also seen as important projects (Flora et al. 1991). In other words, by developing clean/hospitality industry and revitalizing/individualizing their hometown, communities in Belfast can re-launch local economic activities with the goal of sustainably utilizing their natural resources and community assets. Since economic considerations that are dominant in modern societies have also been prevalent in community development studies, Belfast residents demand for a certain level of economic expansion to improve their economic conditions that reflects the core theme of this economic development approach. Since areas that depend on a single source of income are vulnerable to economic restructuring, the key is to provide them with diverse sources of economic sufficiency. Studies of community economic development illustrate how the structural disadvantages of community economic development influence the ways community members respond to local development paths and what strategies they adopt to solve problems. For example, according to Blakely (1994), communities have faced difficult and overwhelming circumstances in local economic development, and must be aware of the problems affecting the local economy and its consequences; local economic development and employment generation should be initiated at the community level to deal more effectively with these local problems facing the community (Blakely 1994:27). 2.4 Community as a field for development The community should be seen as a whole, rather than as the sum of its parts, wherein the interconnections among individuals, groups, associations, and organizations form concrete social forces to cope with external and internal changes facing the community (Fawcett et al. 1995). Kaufman (1959) argued that development must go beyond planned economic programs and place more priority on improving and increasing community residents identification with the locality in order to get them involved in the process of local development. This process empowers the local community. To carry out such identification with the locality, collaborative action and mutual identity are emphasized prominently in this theoretical orientation. Elaborating extensively on Kaufmans interactional perspective on community, Wilkinson (1970) tied social structure in to the context of community development. He claimed that social structure is defined in an interactional context as observable relationships built up through an action process by members. The role and position of members in a given interactional network are identified and classified to evaluate the pattern of the structure, which determines the continuity of social processes and the direction of social change. It is a network structure-building orientation of community development that focuses on integrative and generalizing networks in the local society (Wilkinson 1970, 1972). This interactional orientation of community development argued that the instrumental orientation of development sees project achievement as the ultimate goal of community development, but, in fact, development should be seen as a dynamic, ongoing process. There are inherent problems behind mate rial demands and physical construction, and there are no substantial, permanent solutions for them. Planned programs for community development are only one of many solutions to achieve social betterment and should focus on building the community field in which the collaborative capacity to pursue locality-oriented common interests is more crucial to the process of community development than solving the immediate physical problems. Wilkinson (1986) argued that empowered collective-oriented community action is the fundamental basis for community development and that community attachment plays an important role in fostering such processes of empowerment. Therefore, exploring the determinants of local residents attachment to their communities becomes an essential step to building up local capacity to deal with community development issues. It is not urbanization or industrialization that directly changes the relationships among local residents or their sense of community. It is the different opportunities and contexts for social interaction leading to different social dynamics that alter the connections between individuals and the society. Beggs et al. (1996) used a name generator method to gather information on respondents social networks and analyzed how closely the respondents interacted in daily life, as well as the strength and duration of their social ties in order to define community attachment. Others, like Brehm, Eisenhauer, and Krannich (2004), adopted multi-dimensional methods to measure community attachment via collective action indicators (including land-based production and conservation involvement, social involvement, and economic/development involvement) and natural environment attachment indicators. By considering two dimensions of community attachment, they found the concept of community attachment cannot be seen as simple social interaction, but as well-developed community cohesion through the linkage between individuals, organizati ons and their locality. Rothman (1979:26) contended that locality development should focus on the broad participation of a wide spectrum of people at the local community level in goal determination and action. According to Rothmans (1979) argument, such broad citizen participation is not only instrumental in solving specific community problems, but also for more general activities, such as democratic procedures, voluntary cooperation, community empowerment, and development of indigenous leadership. This locality development approach emphasized the whole local systems capacity for building and maintaining in which a fundamental network structure should be built up by establishing cooperative relationships among groups by creating a self-help community problem solving system and stimulating residents interest and participation in community affairs. These goals of locality development emphasized community organizations and the harmonious interrelationships among them. To integrate the arguments of community development as a process of interaction, community fields where the community capacity for collective action can be created for the common good and social betterment. Forms of interaction include formal and informal social contact within organized and unorganized social activities. Through such purposeful and non-purposeful interactions, social forces are raised to respond to local issues. Specifically, a community field is manifested in the interactional structure among local residents, groups, and organizations contributing together to the accomplishment of specific objectives of community projects. The central focus of community field theory is on structurally oriented interactions through which communication occurs and fosters positive and cohesive relationships among community members. In addition, Sharp (2001) analyzed community by for examining the concept of community field perspectives in the relationships between network structure and development. He found that these network structures can help community members to cooperate with local organizations, to access resources, to get information flowing among them, and to identify attributes of the community that enhance general capacity for local action. Pavey et al. (2007) contends that the ultimate goal of community development is to build the communitys capacity to manage its own world based on members own meaning systems. They focused on exploring whether sound social relationships were a driving force to stimulate community capacity and strengthen self-governance on community issues. In their findings, interactional field theory was confirmed by the positive relationship between the community field and economic development through horizontal linkages among community members. The changes of social distance and degrees of community attachment among local residents influence the potential community cohesion and collaborative action that can be taken to approach the community common good. Some empirical studies have examined this argument. Sharp (2001) focused on selected features of small-town social structure and its relationship to the community capacity for local action. Drawing on the interactional perspective, community network analysis, and community power research, he proposed an approach to measuring and evaluating the community field to understand more clearly the relationship between community structure and the capacity for local action. His findings complement the thinking on community social capital and social infrastructure and reveal that social relationships and local residents interaction structure are importantly associated with the community capacity for local action. Development should be focused on the community itself, rather than relying solely on neo-classical economics individualism and political-economics macro structuralism. Community development is as a means to an end, a process of guiding for a particular purpose that is eventually helpful to the local community. Furthermore, community development has been realized as a social movement, a process of empowering community that tends to build up its own organizational structure, accepted procedures, and active practitioners within its territory. It stresses and promotes the idea of community development as interpreted by its local residents. In response to such an argument, we might ask that, in the process of building horizontal network ties, hierarchical inequality of power within class, gender, or other social structures could be minimized in order to pursue empowerment of each individual. Traditional community researchers simplify community development as the process of community empowerment in which community capacity is crucial for a better life in the community. 2.5 Research focus from the framework Community development obviously has a variety of meanings to local residents and their personal attitudes toward the vision of their community future are influenced by their attitudes and opinions on issues facing the local community. This research primarily focuses on individuals attitudes toward their local community development through the five models. By examining the research hypotheses, this study analyzes rural residents experiences in local community life to determine preferences for community development alternatives as guided by the five elements of the model. In order to examine the research hypotheses in terms of the relationship between local residents general attitudes toward the current conditions and local community attitudes toward development alternatives, as well as individuals socio-demographic characteristics logistic regression modelling is applied. In five logistic regressions, individuals major concerns with regard to community development issues are used as the dependent variable. Independent variables are used to examine the dependent models through five research hypotheses. Resident attitudes towards community development preferences form the core theme in this research. Therefore, the significance of research is to examine observable changes that shape towards local community circumstances in response to developments their own expectations and attitudes toward future community development alternatives.

Theories of The London Riots

Theories of The London Riots Secondly, Karl Marxs class conflict theory of Marxism will be discussed regarding its theoretical input to the preliminary causing of the riots. Capitalism engenders crime through the infusion of egotistic tendencies with the failure of means to satisfy such demands. A financial hierarchy has been created in which wealth and material possessions are crucial when escalating up this hierarchy. Lastly, the theory of consumer culture shall be considered in response to the London riots. Consumer culture is broadly defined as ones desire and ability in living beyond basic needs. Merton (1938) suggests that crime occurs when an individuals ambitions of material wealth cannot be achieved in a socially acceptable manner, leading to means of deviance such as theft. Social Exclusion in response to the London riots. Individuals, families and groups can be said to be in poverty when . . . their resources are so seriously below those commanded by the average individual or family that they are, in effect, excluded from ordinary living patterns, customs and activities (Townsend, 1979). We need to remember that social exclusion doesnt just happen within the working classes; it can happen across all the classes. Social exclusion differs to Marxism in that it doesnt concern itself primarily with poverty, social exclusion can be multi-dimensional in which poverty is typical, but not always implicated (Saunders, 2003). Social exclusion is contrast to Marxism in that the focus isnt on poverty and class. Social exclusion happens for many global roots, whether this can be through the decline of manufacturing industries and the creation of structural unemployment. Wilson (1996) highlights issues with people wanting to work but not having the necessary skills or education to do so. This therefore leads them into financial deprivation then essentially crime i.e. looting and robbery. University fees now situate themselves at  £9,000 alone. This prices out many individuals leaving them without the necessary education to strive and achieve in the workplace. In relation to the riots, it is this exclusion from societal expectations that leads individuals to have to fight for their place in society. Bauman and Rose also argue that active rejection of the lower class by society by downsizing industry creating higher unemployment, the labelling of those without jobs and the ideology that the lower class are criminogenic, violent, with many being ethnic. Social exclusion detracts poverty and class away from the causes of crime however, which was a very apparent concern in the spread of the riots. Coupled with this there is very little theory to actuall y explain the causes and effects of social exclusion in which is very apparent within the Marx theories. MacDonald and Marsh (2002) state that it has become a confusing and slippery catch-all phrase with no real explanation. Social exclusion reiterates the implication of dichotomy between exclusion and inclusion (Levitas 1996; see also Hills et al. 2002) in which is very poorly explained. Marxism in response to the London riots. Representation of anger and resentment from the working class, predominantly the poorest, most excluded individuals were shown towards the police, capitalism and racial victimisation throughout the London riots. The catalyst for the initial focus was the killing of Mark Duggan by police officials. Reports from the police and the news teams which followed this unlawful killing were contradictory and unclear leading to an uproar of frustration and anger. Marx would suggest that the police are an organisation of armed men, who look to implement the authoritarianism of the bourgeoisie. Furthermore, he would suggest that the media and police are all products of the same billionaires who fund and own such organisations. This coupled with the consumerist society is what drove individuals to rebel. The Marxist theory suggests that societal judgment of an individual is performed on the contents of their wallet and wardrobe as appose to their characteristics and personality (Clinnard and Meier, 2008). Marx states that where a ruling class classification is achieved; the individuals not situated in this group will revolt against them who do, thus creating power relationships between different social groups (Haralambos and Holborn, 2007). Inequality is largely fuelled through social deprivation; this creates jealousy, greed and conflict within societies and in turn leads to public displays of rebellion and revolt. The London riots of 2011 suggest that a society driven by consumerism encourages anti-social behaviour, coupled with the vast amount of material looting, we can assume that this revolt was aimed at the rich capitalists who situate themselves pinnacle within this hierarchy of wealth and importance. Whilst applying Marxism to the riots and the real world it would seem that accountability for essential parts of society are lacking. A Marxist society sees individuals who work hard being rewarded with wealth and stability for their efforts. Unemployment rates were exceptionally high within society at the time of the riots giving well educated and skilled individuals no means of income or alternatively, struggling whilst working hard in low paid jobs. Furthermore, within the riots it was stated that individuals involved were all low class, young and criminogenic complimentary to Marxist views of criminals being from a third class, lumpenproletariat. Amongst those convicted for rioting however was a millionaires daughter and law student who were firmly nestled within middle class families. Colvin and Pauly (1983) suggested that people in lower paid jobs are controlled at work through manipulation and coercion. This can further be seen in the lead up to the riots of August 2011 through the policing of communities. 73 per cent of individuals interviewed in the reading the riots article had been stopped and searched within the past year. Marx would suggest that this robust policing on specific communities are the ruling class exploiting the working class, thus explaining involvement within the riots as an act of hatred for the authorities. Consumer Culture in response to the London riots. Throughout the aftermath of the London riots many aspects of society have been subjected to culpability in the reasoning for the preliminary causing of this rebellion and revolt. However, rather a large aspect of societal influence hasnt been subjected to this liability, this being designers, retail companies and electrical suppliers. The riots were not focussed on the destruction of property or violent attacks upon our government/forces instead these riots were subject to obtaining goods free of charge. Footlocker, JJB, Carphone Warehouse etc. these were just some of the shops in which were targeted but these young individuals, this coming as no surprise. Businesses like these are home to the goods in which are most desirable by individuals today, highlighting that the riots happened due to an out of control consumerist ethos (Hawkes, 2011). Consumer culture has an illustrious history behind it. Slater (1997) stated that consumer culture is discovered every few decades; or, to be uncharitable, it has been redesigned, repackaged and relaunched as a new academic and political product every generation since the sixteenth century. Importantly, consumer culture became mass during the 20th century, particularly after the Second World War (Hall et al. 2008). This shows that under no measures will consumer culture be controlled. Consumption has now replaced production as the defining characteristic of Western societies (Lasch 1979, Bauman 1998). Advertising is dominant in every aspect of an individuals life, Facebook, Twitter, Amazon, these are all new and improved ways in which products can be publicised. It is this constant barrage of consumerism that leads to every aspect of an individuals life being consumeristic, education, where you reside etc. all are key in your social expression. Merton (1938) states that when a materialistic wealth is unable to be achieved through socially acceptable means, crime and deviance will occur. This links well with Youngs (2007) view of a bulimic society in that massive cultural inclusion is accompanied by systematic structural exclusion. He then continues to say that the consumer markets propagate a citizenship of joyful consumption yet the ability to spend (and sometimes even to enter) within the mall is severely limited. The riots of August 2011 where described as envy masked as a triumphant carnival (Zizek, 2011). Bankers, politicians, footballers etc. are all subject to ample amounts of publicity and it is their materialistic wealth that creates this want and envy, in turn, leading to individuals going to these extreme lengths in order to achieve such wealth. Hayward (2004) however creates a different notion. He believes that the material goods in which where taken during the riots where not for the wealth they bestowed but alternatively for the identity in which they gave the individual. Thus, where the employed and wealthy are also looting it is hard to label these select individuals into one generic category. This rebellion of consumerism and social exclusion that is seen everywhere when reasoning for the riots surely is incorrect. It was an attempt to join in (Bauman, 2011), climb that materialistic hierarchy and enhance your identity. Conclusion: The theories discussed above are merely three of many in which can account for the riots in August 2011. All three of these theories highlight issues surrounding poverty, class and the exclusion in which conjoins itself to this hierarchy of wealth. Karl Marxs capitalism suggests response to the riots in that a good capitalism is needed to rejuvenate Britain but we must then account for the question, can capitalism be reformed to account these lower class individuals or simply continue to exploit them? It is this exploitation in which needs to be controlled and accessed within many societal areas. It is extremely evident that the police forces abuse their stop and search powers and this is further targeted at the same individuals in which are secluded from society from governmental statues and manifestos; the youths, blacks and underprivileged. Education, direction and employment are very regularly inaccessible for these individuals which, in turn, lead to a lifetime in crime as means of survival. But where there is consumer culture, they will be exploitation. Our direction, our role models tend to locate themselves at the highest end of this hierarchy of wealth. We see the watches they buy, we see the clothes they wear, we see the cars they drive, this strive for success and these material goods are the main factors in which also spirals an individual into a life of crime. The London riots saw an extremely large number of individuals overlooking the laws and their morals to provide themselves with these material goods in which they probably wouldnt have owned without taking these measures. The conservative government have a history in capitalism, exploitation and the lack of societal values. We saw Margret Thatcher openly state these views throughout her time as prime minister but, in this modern society in which we live it has become obvious that these views will not stand and individuals will do anything in their power to rebel against this.